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How Vaccines Work: by Peter Nisbet
When an organism gets into your body and causes an infection, your body gathers its defenses and fights against them. This is the basic principle of how vaccines work...

Conflict Resolution in Work Teams: by Kenneth R Tapscott
The process of building a team is no easy task. It requires a lot of commitment, cooperation, and communication from all those involved. Everyone in the team should be sharing a common goal and everyone should contribute equally...

Nursing Degree Applications Up, But Demand Still Exceeds Supply: by Neal Brown
For the fifth year in a row, applications have increased for schools offering a nursing degree, according to American Association of Colleges of Nursing. Unfortunately, this continuing increase still can't keep up with the demand as over 32,000 students were turned away...

Addiction Treatment Centers Using Experiential Therapies: by Marina Petroni
Life is experience. Substance dependence overtakes a person's ability to make her own decisions to experience life, and life is no longer actively participated in. Therefore, in overcoming addiction, it is vital to learn to re-experience life...

Travel Nursing Career - A Dream Come True?: by Doug Koch
Deciding what job to pursue after college entails more brain cells than most activities. Unlike deciding on which car to buy or which clothes to wear, you must give the decision its due because it will affect your happiness and quality of life for the next three to four decades...

Day One at Nursing Home For Rehabilitation: by Tammy Gonzales
Finally, your patient is at the skilled unit of the nursing home. The admission paperwork for admittance into the skilled nursing home for rehabilitation can take up to an hour to complete. The responsible party, whether it is you, the patient, your spouse, an adult child, or someone - will have to sign all of the paper work...

'A Is For Action' - What Time Management Is Really About: by Jason Anderson
When you get right down to it, time management is really about managing your actions. We all want to use the process of time management to allows us to perform more actions in the day, getting everything done that needs to be done and giving us time...

Time Killer Checklist: Are You Suffering From Them?: by Jason Anderson
I bet you're frustrated over never having enough time to get everything done in the day. There are only a fixed number of hours in the day, and no matter how hard we wish for it, that will never change...

Overview Of Medical Assistance For Persons With Disabilities Ages 3-21: by Christine Dugan
Medical Assistance (MA), or Medicaid, is a federal/state insurance program that pays for health and treatment services for children and adults with disabilities. Some of these services include such things as health screenings, therapies, behavioral support services, transportation, and home healthcare. Medical Assistance...

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Recent Articles

Addiction Treatment Centers Using Experiential Therapies
by: Marina Petroni

Life is experience. Substance dependence overtakes a person's ability to make his or her own decisions to experience life, and life is no longer actively participated in. Therefore, in overcoming addiction, it is vital to learn to re-experience life. This lesson helps a treatment center resident reintegrate into the world after therapy is through. Experiential therapy is this bridge to leaving a life of substance dependency and commencing a life of health, both physical and mental. Experiential therapy is a necessary component in the steps towards a complete therapy. In addition to counseling and more traditional therapies, experiential is the door to the world - it forces the patients to test themselves, to get up when they fall, to learn that giving up is not an option. This is a vital lesson to learn when overcoming addiction - as when problems arise after therapy - the former patient will remember that there are other means of dealing with problems than turning back to addiction.

Experiential therapy includes many various forms, and can be divided into two main categories: outdoor experiential therapy and indoor experiential therapy. Both aim at physical and mental challenges in order to succeed. Equine therapy, which falls within the category of outdoor experiential therapy, is worth reviewing on its own, due to its uniqueness and successful results. Research supports the use of experiential therapy, as motivation increases and social integration is easier through the experience of such therapy.

The great outdoors is well known for its healing abilities, and exercise in itself releases the same good-feeling endorphins as a high does. There we have it: the high that is healthy. Outdoor experiential therapy utilizes nature to help residents work through their problems and free themselves from dependency through the physical challenges offered in nature. Activities can include winter sports like snowshoeing, and summer sports like hiking. More radical activities, like a heli-experience, are also possible. The heli-experience takes people to literally previously unknown heights. In opening new worlds, these experiences reconnect residences to their world, which is so important to eventually helping them reconnect with the people who live in this world. While outdoor activities are beneficial for the social aspect of interacting with other residents, their main achievement is to make the resident introspect and put a perspective on the resident's own life in the context of the towering natural world.

Indoor experiential therapy can be based on an indoor ropes and challenge course. While also containing the aspect of physical challenge, indoor experiential therapy is a greater internal challenge. The residents must mentally prepare themselves for the challenges that come at such heights. Also, trust is an invaluable lesson learned in indoor therapy. Partners rely on each other to succeed in these activities, thus learning to communicate effectively and learning to trust another. This can be an especially difficult aspect of healing from addiction, as, for so many, trust is not a part of a life of addiction. Learning to rebuild personal self-confidence and trust in others is vital for a successful recovery from substance dependence. Reintegrating into society after therapy is one of the most difficult aspects of recovery, so having a treatment program that rebuilds the elements of trust and confidence, needed for a successful life in our society, is especially beneficial.

Equine therapy, a certain highlight of the outdoor experiential therapy, combines aspects used both in outdoor and indoor therapy. From the aspect of the outdoors, equine therapy offers the chance to be with, in, and beyond nature, with a living being that sees us only for who we are. Horses are extremely intelligent creatures, having a special history with the human race. So vital in the development of the modern world, horses were the first vehicles for transporting messengers and mail efficiently, as the Pony Express reminds us, and were man's trusted guides in exploration and on battlefields. And, while a horse does not judge mankind, it certainly can read a character and will cleverly use a human's personality to its advantage. Trust is an essential element of equine therapy, and it is a relationship with a creature that will not lie about its feelings. When a genuine friendship is formed between horse and person, it is a lifelong bond. Equine therapy combines the power of nature and a physical challenge with the need to build a trusting relationship with a fellow living creature and increase self-confidence. In this manner, equine therapy is especially helpful for residents of treatment centers, as it combines all elements so beneficial to recovery in one activity.

Experiential therapy teaches lessons of confidence in the self as well as in others, and teaches facing challenges and overcoming them. Motivation is of prime importance in overcoming an addiction, and what better place to find motivation than where we naturally seek it: in situations that encourage us to aim higher than we imagine is possible. Through the motivation that appears in the physical activities, treatment center residents learn to carry it over to their own lives, and find the necessary motivation to deal with personal issues. Simultaneously building confidence and trust in themselves and others only strengthens the desire for motivation. The added health benefits of partaking in physical exercise show themselves both on the bodies and minds of patients. Getting the body into shape helps stabilize the mind, and helps lead a generally healthier life. There is never an easy cure to addiction, and many paths and steps must be followed to guide to a better life. The step of experiential therapy is one of the most rewarding steps in treatment, as the treatment resident is aware first-hand of its results. This personal feeling of achievement in overcoming challenges makes great headway in the recovery process from addiction.

About The Author
This article was written by Marina Petroni, sponsored by http://www.cirquelodge.com/. Cirque Lodge, located in Sundance, Utah, is a world-class residential drug rehab facility providing a private, effective, and serene pathway to sobriety. Reproductions of this article are encouraged but must include a link pointing back to http://www.cirquelodge.com/.

'A Is For Action' - What Time Management Is Really About
by: Jason Anderson

When you get right down to it, time management is really about managing your actions. We all want to use the process of time management to allows us to perform more actions in the day, getting everything done that needs to be done and giving us time to do the things we enjoy doing. But time management isn't a magical cure for getting the actions done that you need to do. It's simply a tool. A very powerful tool when used correctly, but still just a tool.

For example, you might learn all there is to know about time management - read countless books, listen to CDs, and maybe even attend a few training courses or seminars. But unless you take action to put what you have learned into practice, it will be time and money wasted. And wasting time, as we both know, is one of the worst things you can do.

On the other hand, perhaps you do decide to take some action, and start to do some of the things you have learned - but only half-heartedly. Maybe you create a "to do" list at the start of the day, but then never refer to it. Or you organize all your existing files, but just throw any new papers into a single pile. Or you do a few of the exercises you have learned, but never do anything with the results you come up with.

But perhaps the worst thing that can happen when using the tools time management offers is to follow the actions you have learned, refer to the information you write down, but then simply not get anything done. In the case of a to do list, perhaps you draw the list up for the day, then just procrastinate on tackling even the first task. You may not even do it consciously - looking back on the day, things just always seemed to "come up" (although if you are following good time management advice, that excuse shouldn't apply any more).

If this is happening, it is possible that the issue isn't time management, but more an issue of motivation.

If the tasks are part of your job, perhaps the work no longer interests you and you need to find another area to work in. If the tasks are for yourself and are related to your personal goals, perhaps the goals you have set for yourself aren't the correct goals for you. You may have written those goals down because you thought you should, but it's not really what you want.

Of course it may just be that you didn't realize you were procrastinating on doing the actions you needed to do, and that realization spurs you on to get everything done!

Ultimately, time management comes down to taking action and applying the methods you have learned to plan your activities, then taking action to do those activities in the most efficient way possible. Everyone can do it - even you!

About The Author
Learn how you can take control of your life and get more done today than you ever thought possible by visiting http://www.timemanagementmentor.com/time-management-training.html, where Jason Anderson passes on essential information about the art of time management and personal organization.

Time Killer Checklist: Are You Suffering From Them?
by: Jason Anderson

I bet you're frustrated over never having enough time to get everything done in the day. There are only a fixed number of hours in the day, and no matter how hard we wish for it, that will never change.

Unfortunately, most people find they have too little time to get everything done because they have several time killers in their life - things that take up much more time than they should. Here are 5 common time killers, as well as tips on how you can avoid them.

Poor equipment
Have you ever had to wait for your computer to start up, or a file you need to open, or even a photocopier to make the copies you need? Perhaps your computer is even crashing constantly, forcing you to restart several times a day.

Often these problems come about from buying the cheapest option, or not maintaining the equipment properly. It's a false economy to do either - the few dollars you save is vastly outweighed by the cost of the time you lose. Fix or replace any such equipment as soon as possible.
Telephone calls
The telephone is a two-edged sword. When used correctly, it can be a great time saver. But at times it can be another time killer.

Always know exactly what you are going to say before you call someone. Quickly identify yourself, and once you are talking to the right person, cover what you need to and hang up. No casual chatting!

If you are receiving calls, and/or have a mobile, decide on fixed times when you will and won't answer the phone. For a normal phone, you can screen your calls. For a mobile, simply turn it off and let the calls go through to voicemail. Then pick a later time to go through all the messages, and only answer the ones that are important.
People who won't stop talking
We've all met them - they love the sound of their own voice, and just won't stop talking. Unfortunately, saying you have to go rarely works. Your best bet is to avoid them where you can. If you receive calls from them, screen your calls (perhaps using caller ID), so you don't have to talk directly to them.
Traffic jams
Everyone living in the city has run into traffic jams at some time or another. While there isn't any way to get through a traffic jam any faster, you do have a few options.

Consider leaving earlier (or later), to avoid the traffic. If that's not possible, investigate public transport options like the subway. Finally, see if there is something else you can do in the car at the same time - perhaps listen to a training CD, or get a lift with someone else and do your work while they deal with the traffic!
Meetings
Meetings can be huge time killers, especially if there is no clear agenda for the meeting. If possible, avoid going to meetings that you don't have to attend. If you can't escape a meeting, encourage the use of a fixed agenda so everyone knows what should be covered. This allows people to (hopefully) gather their thoughts ahead of time, and will limit off-topic conversation.

We all suffer from time killers in our life. The people who are successful know how to identify those time killers, and how to avoid them.

Overview Of Medical Assistance For Persons With Disabilities Ages 3-21
by: Christine Dugan

Medical Assistance (MA), or Medicaid, is a federal/state insurance program that pays for health and treatment services for children and adults with disabilities. Some of these services include such things as health screenings, therapies, behavioral support services, transportation, and home healthcare. Medical Assistance was authorized on July 1, 1969, under the Social Security Act, Title XIX, Grants to States for Medical Assistance Programs. It is funded partly by the states and partly by the federal government. The code of federal regulations, Title 42, The Public Health and Welfare, is another important source of law that states the federal regulations pertaining to Medical Assistance. Medical Assistance is a free program and anyone can apply for Medical Assistance, however, not everyone with disabilities is eligible for Medical Assistance benefits. Each state establishes its own eligibility standards, benefits package, provider requirements, payment rates, and program administration under broad federal guidelines. This paper will provide an overview of Medical Assistance eligibility requirements, services, and the rights of children that are Medical Assistance eligible, ages 3-21.

In order to meet the federal MA qualifications, the child with disabilities must meet the U.S. citizen/alien requirements for MA, fit into one of the categories that MA establishes, and meet income and resource requirements (Pennsylvania Health Law Project, 2003). In order to be MA eligible in Pennsylvania, one must be a resident of the state or a covered immigrant (Pennsylvania Health Law Project, 2003). There are several categories within MA that cover persons with disabilities and they often have different requirements (Pennsylvania Health Law Project, 2003). Children with disabilities that are eligible for Social Security Income (SSI) are automatically eligible for MA.

Children with disabilities that are categorized as severely disabled and are not on SSI are also eligible for MA, regardless of their parents' income and assets and if their own personal income is less than the poverty level (in 2003 was $749/month). The Department of Welfare calls this category the "loophole" category (Pennsylvania Health Law Project, 2003). In this category, if a child's income exceeds the poverty level, the child is still possibly eligible for CHIP (Children's Health Insurance Program) or may be eligible for a "Waiver" program if the child requires a higher level of care (Pennsylvania Health Law Project, 2003). Most children in Pennsylvania with severe physical, mental, or behavioral disabilities qualify for MA services (Education Law Center, n.d.).

Although a child with disabilities may be receiving special education services and have a particular diagnosis, it does not mean that the child meets the disability standards for Medical Assistance (Parents Involved Network of Pennsylvania, n.d.). The eligibility standards for special education are different from the MA disability standards. However, a child's Evaluation Report (ER) can be an excellent source that documents factors that are considered in the Medical Assistance disability standard (Parents Involved Network of Pennsylvania, n.d.).

Children with disabilities that qualify for MA receive what is called an "ACCESS" card, which they can utilize for the purchase of a variety of prevention and treatment services. Anything that is medically necessary must be provided and children that are eligible are entitled to these services. Except through a "Waiver" program, MA does not cover any educational or rehabilitation services. MA services are free and there are no co-pays or additional charges. If a family has private medical insurance, this must be used first for the child with disabilities (Education Law Center, n.d).

Examples of behavioral health services covered by MA include residential treatment facilities, behavioral services (wrap-around services, therapeutic support staff), medication for behavioral problems, and partial hospitalization programs (Education Law Center, n.d.). Examples of health services that are covered by MA include nursing care at home or at school, therapies, communication devices, medical equipment, and personal care services for children who need assistance with self-care skills, such as eating or dressing (Education Law Center, n.d.). MA must also provide eligible children with any services that are necessary to meet the child's physical or behavioral needs during the day, such as a nurse, a specialized hearing aid, or a therapeutic support staff person. Many of these services, however, are also considered "related services" based on IDEA regulations, and school districts are responsible for listing these services on the child's IEP even if the services are being covered by MA (Education Law Center, n.d.).

MA recipients have certain rights in Pennsylvania. The following list of rights is an excerpt from the Pennsylvania Law Project's website:

The right to receive and file an application on the same day that you ask for it.
The right to bring someone with you to help you with the MA application.
The right to have an application completed by a friend, relative, or official of a hospital, agency, etc. if you are ill or physically or mentally unable to do so.
The right to translation services and translated written material.
The right to receive coverage beginning with the 3rd month before the application, if you qualify for retroactive MA.
The right to have DPW quickly issue a MA card if you have â€˜an immediate need for medical services.'
The right to receive medically necessary treatment and services without discrimination based on national origin, race, color, sex, or disability.
The right to free choice of MA enrolled health care providers unless you are enrolled in the Health Choices Program.
The right to be treated with dignity and respect.
If you are homeless, the right to apply for MA even if you have no address.
The right to have the MA programs explained to you and to receive help in determining the best possible coverage for which you qualify.
The right to prior notice of, and a fair hearing to contest, any decision by the MA agency or an MA HMO to deny, terminate, or reduce benefits.

(Pennsylvania Law Project, n.d.)

All decisions regarding the rejection of MA or the reduction or termination of MA must be provided to recipients in writing and with instructions on how to appeal. Recipients have 30 days to file appeals, but if the appeal is filed within 10 days of the date of termination or reduction notice, MA benefits must continue until there is an outcome to the appeal (Parents Involved Network of Pennsylvania, n.d).

Medical Assistance provides valuable health and treatment services to children with disabilities in order to help them to make meaningful progress and to achieve greater independence. As educators, it is important that we provide families with resources about Medical Assistance so that they can pursue the potential benefits and services that the program provides.

About The Author
Christine Dugan works in the special education field and is a contributing author to the health information site http://www.health.divinfo.com as well as the article submission site http://www.articlemotron.com.

Nursing Degree Applications Up, But Demand Still Exceeds Supply
by: Neal Brown

For the fifth year in a row, applications have increased for schools offering a nursing degree, according to American Association of Colleges of Nursing. Unfortunately, this continuing increase still can't keep up with the demand as over 32,000 students were turned away.

Last year, the U.S. Department of Labor reported Registered Nursing as the top occupation in terms of job growth through the year 2012. According to the latest projections from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, more than one million new and replacement nurses will be needed by 2012.

Students are either looking for other careers or looking for other schools. One resource that many students are finding helpful is the website www.best-nursing-degree.info. In many cases students are finding out about nursing programs within their area, but offered by schools other than their closest public university.

One option that is growing in popularity is the accelerated bachelor nursing degree. This program allows students with a bachelor's degree in a different field to obtain a BSN in 12 to 18 months. This program has grown from 31 schools in 1990 to 168 today. The program is intense with 40 hours of class and lab time per week, plus study time. There are usually no breaks between terms, either. The cost is steep as well - $30,000 - but many students are able to qualify for grants and loans.

At the other end of the spectrum are part-time students that are looking to change careers or need to work full-time. These students take one or two classes per semester and will take several years beyond the standard four to complete their degree.

The payoff? Starting salaries from $45,000 and up. There is, of course, more advancement to the levels of nurse practitioners and graduate degrees.

With demand continuing to outpace supply, all types of students that are interested in the field are encouraged to begin pursuing a nursing degree by viewing the resources at www.best-nursing-degree.info.

About The Author
Neal Brown is a college instructor with an MBA in Financial Management. More information is available at http://www.best-nursing-degree.info.

Travel Nursing Career - A Dream Come True?
by: Doug Koch

Deciding what job to pursue after college entails more brain cells than most activities. Unlike deciding on which car to buy or which clothes to wear, you must give the decision its due because it will effect your happiness and quality of life for the next three to four decades.

Most people believe that a career in travel nursing is stuff that dreams are made of. Those currently following this career path agree that it is a great way to make a living, though there are a few who argue and refute this. But all agree that it's entirely up to you whether your career in travel nursing becomes a dream come true.

How do you start on a career in travel nursing?

Let's divide the answer into two parts: travel and nursing. We'll tackle the latter first. To be able to pursue a career in travel nursing, you must of course be equipped with a creditable nursing degree. Now, some may possess one-year-diplomas and call themselves professionals. Unfortunately for them, not all hospital or healthcare employers accept that as enough credentials. If you only have a vocational degree tucked under your belt, then perhaps you should pursue a career in care giving, rather than travel nursing. Caregivers, after all, still get to travel across the globe. It all comes down to the skills.

The second half of a travel nursing career is the traveling. So you're the proud holder of a nursing degree and you're duly licensed to practice nursing. The next step to tackle, then, is learning how to go about your travels. Most people prefer to seek recruitment agencies for help in this matter. These agencies are ably experienced in assisting people interested in making a fortune in travel nursing. But you must beware! There are several recruitment agencies that may just be a scam to whisk your money away. And remember, using their services means paying some fees and, in some instances, the fees are high. Be careful and be wary. Ask questions and don't go with any agency that you don't feel is being 100% honest with you. If their fees are out of line, then find another agency. Or you can always go it alone.

A few things to consider when traveling are the need of a passport. First, check with the embassy in your country of choice and see if they require a visa. Second, make sure that all your nursing documents and proof that you have graduated from a reputable school and have passed the necessary examinations are all duly authenticated. A career in travel nursing may mean jumping from one country after another, so it would definitely reduce your stress level if all your papers, even your resume, are supported with valid reference documents.

How do you adjust or embark on a life of travel nursing?

Experienced travel nurses provide us with plenty of advice and tips to make sure that first time nurses in this particular career will have an easier transition into the field.

Double-Check Everything

At least three to five days prior to your departure make sure that you haven't forgotten anything. Make a checklist of all essentials and cross them off the list as you pack them. From documents to the clothes you've packed, make sure that everything in your list is accounted for. A career in travel nursing is a demanding job and leaves little room for error, so it's best to start on the right foot.

Research Your Destination(s)

A travel nursing career requires that you to go to different countries meet different people and adjust to different cultures. Researching destinations beforehand will help avoid miscommunication, reduce the possible culture shock, and basically just make your experience a whole lot more enjoyable and less stressful.

Ask For An Early Move-in

An early move is suggested by experienced travel nurses because it enables you to relax and breathe a little before embarking on your new travel nursing job. Familiarize yourself with the place and the people. And best of all, enjoy the new sights; one of the major perks of having a career in travel nursing is, of course, the travel.

While the compensation and perks are quite exceptional, and because the Travel Nursing Career is such a high demand, highly sought after position, it's a bit more difficult to secure than most other nursing positions. As a result, most employers are very picky, so make sure that you have what it takes. And if you don't, then improve your skills (education and/or experience) or find another sector of the nursing profession to make your career.

A great place to begin researching your Travel Nursing career is at http://www.eyeonnursing.com, a website dedicated to being a complete resource on Nursing.

About The Author
Kevin Erickson is a contributing writer for the following websites: http://www.eyeonnursing.com and http://www.total-transcription.com. Permission is given to publish this article for free, provided the author resource box is included in its entirety.

Day One at Nursing Home For Rehabilitation
by: Tammy Gonzales

The admission paperwork for admittance into the skilled nursing home for rehabilitation can take up to an hour to complete. The responsible party - whether it is you, the patient, your spouse, an adult child, or someone - will have to sign all of the paper work.

The day that the resident is received at the nursing home skilled rehabilitation unit, the resident or the responsible party will be offered a list of physicians, and asked to select one that will follow them during their stay. After a physician is selected, the nurse will contact him/her to receive the resident. The nurse will receive a report from the hospital nurse to verify the discharge orders from the hospital physician, and the condition of the resident.

The first day (all time before midnight) at the nursing home is called the day of rest (day 1 of skilled care). No therapies or therapy evaluations will be offered on this day, so that the resident can become adjusted to routines and staff.

The Admissions Coordinator will meet with the resident or the resident's representative (responsible party or Power of Attorney) to do the Admissions Agreement and collect financial and health related information, and to disseminate information on their nursing home's policies and procedures. Nursing homes must meet federal, state and local regulations; therefore they will have several acknowledgement forms that require signatures of receipt. These forms vary from state to state and nursing home to nursing home.

Most all nursing homes have an Admission Agreement and it must be signed within 24 hours of admission. Most of the agreements are comprehensive and are written to accept residents with varying levels of care and payer sources. The agreement explains what the nursing home's responsibilities and limitations are and what the resident/responsible party's responsibly and limitations are.

Most common and routine sections of the agreement for a skilled rehabilitation stay are:

Consent to Treatment
Assignment Of Benefits
Agreement with the Pharmacy
Assignment to Use Medicare Part B
Receipt of Health Information Portability and Accountability Act
Health Information Practices and Release of Information Consent
Medicare Determination Letter
Consent for a Resident Trust Account
Bed Hold Policy
Ancillary Services Price List

During the admission process, the Admission Coordinator will briefly describe to you each section of the agreement and what you are putting your signature to. To read the whole agreement to you would take 2 to 3 hours. Always request a copy of the agreement (you should not be charged for a copy).

Nursing homes are required to provide you with information, though some of this information varies from state to state and nursing home to nursing home. This is how nursing homes prove to regulatory agencies that they have provided you with information. Here is an example list of those types of acknowledgement forms:

Acknowledgement or Receipt of Nursing Home Policies and Procedures
Acknowledgement or Receipt of Resident Rights
Acknowledgement or Receipt of Falls Management Program
Acknowledgement or Receipt of Skin Management Program
Acknowledgement or Receipt of Hydration Management Program
Acknowledgement or Receipt of Nutrition Management Program
Acknowledgement or Receipt of Self-Administration of Medication
Acknowledgement or Receipt of Chemical/Physical Restraints

You will feel that you are signing your life away, but you are not. All of these forms are standard for admission into most all nursing home rehabilitation units. Be sure to read them as soon as you can. If you have any questions ask them to explain. If they can't or won't explain contact the faculty ombudsman for assistance.

How Vaccines Work
by: Peter Nisbet

When an organism gets into your body and causes an infection, your body gathers its defenses and fights against them. This is the basic principle of how vaccines work.

Certain cells in your blood make what are called 'antibodies', molecules which are designed to attack specific germs and viruses. These attach to the invaders in your bloodstream and prevent them from invading other cells. Each virus or bacterium has an individual shape, and the antibodies are designed to fit exactly to that shape.

This is how vaccines work to convince your body that the vaccination is a 'full-blooded' attack by the offending viruses or bacteria, and stimulate them into action to develop the 'memory' or 'blueprint' for the antibody in the event of future invasion.

This is all done by your white blood cells. You have two types called B-cells and T-cells. The B-cells manufacture the antibodies while the T-cells have two functions. The 'helper' T-cells help the B-cells to make the antibodies while the 'killer' T-cells kill any cells which have been invaded by the viruses or bacteria, and prevent them from reproducing. How vaccines work to stimulate this action is to mislead the white cells into believing that your body has been infected.

Your body reacts to kill the invaders in two ways: directly through the antibodies, and indirectly through the T-cells destroying any infected cells and preventing reproduction.

Viruses cannot reproduce by themselves: they have to use the host's cells for this. If the T-cells continually kill off any invaded cells, the invaders themselves must eventually be killed off by the antibodies. If the virus or bacterium is strong and reproduces too quickly, the host can be overcome before it can produce enough antibodies to kill them off. The pus which occurs during an infection is the mix of dead white blood cells and bacteria/virus cells destroyed by them.

If your body survives the attack, your B-cells retain a memory of the structure of the invaders and, should the same viruses or bacteria ever return, antibodies can rapidly be produced and the infection killed off before it starts. The stimulation of this memory is exactly how vaccines work.

Vaccines produce the same memory effect without the patient having to suffer the disease. The organisms that cause the disease are either killed or weakened, then introduced into your body. The strength is calculated to be just enough to enable your white cells to manufacture the antibodies. This is how vaccines work to give you protection against future infection without actually making you ill. The strength of the vaccine is designed to allow this. The dead vaccine can also work, but less efficiently, and the effect is not generally as long lasting.

The 'live' vaccines produce life-long immunity after only one or two doses, but the 'dead', or 'inactivated', ones need multiple doses to get the correct effect. Some dead vaccines even need booster doses throughout your life. Examples of these are tetanus and diphtheria vaccines, normally given together every 10 years as the Td vaccine. The measles vaccine is an example of a 'live' vaccine.

Vaccinations do not affect your ability to fight off other infections you have not been immunized against.

About The Author
Peter Nisbet is an industrial graduate chemist who became interested in childhood health issues when his son contracted misdiagnosed meningitis and encephalitis shortly after a measles vaccination. He decided to learn as much as he could so that he would feel less useless the next time. His website is http://www.childhood-diseases-online.com and he also runs a general health site at http://www.welshhealth.com.

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Conflict Resolution in Work Teams
by: Kenneth R Tapscott

The process of building a team is no easy task. It requires a lot of commitment, cooperation and communication from all those involved. Everyone in the team should be sharing a common goal and everyone should contribute equally to the team's efforts. Conflicts are inevitable in work teams, but are not something that have to prevent the team from growing and accomplishing its goals. Setting up a solid team structure and negotiating and mediating all disputes will increase chances of success in work teams.

About work teams

The implementing of work teams is surfacing more often and becoming more prominent in various organizations. Corporations have discovered the effectiveness of work teams and how they can resolve problems such as moral issues, performance issues, and many others (Capozzoli 1999). There are many factors which can prevent the teams from achieving their goals and many issues will surface and have to be dealt with in order to have a successful team environment. Socialization is a very important part of team success. This is the stage when team members learn what is required of them to be a part of the team. The socialization of members is typically broken down into stages. There are typically three stages: the anticipation stage, the accommodation stage, and the acceptance phase (Capozzoli, T.K. 1995). The anticipation stage occurs first and is prior to a person even joining the team. In this stage, future members will think about what may be expected of them when they join the team. They can start preparing for the team and think how they will be able to contribute. The next phase is the accommodation stage. This is where team members become involved with the team on a daily basis. Members will be contributing on a day-to-day basis. At this stage, it will become clear to members of the team what is expected of them. Members will learn what is acceptable and unacceptable behavior in the team. The final stage of socialization is the acceptance stage. In this stage, members are taking responsibility for their roles on the team. At this stage, team members will feel that they are a part of the group and that they are contributing to the team;s success (Bowditch, J. L., Buono, A. F. 1997).

Why are there conflicts in teams?

Conflict can arise from numerous sources within a team setting, and generally falls into three categories: communication factors, structural factors, and personal factors. The first category is communication. Poor listening skills, ignoring team members, wrongful interpretation, and lack of sharing information are all a part of this barrier. These can lead to many misunderstandings. The second category is structural factors, which does not play much of a role with a college work team, as it does in a business. Regardless, disagreements that occur include the size of the organization, levels of participation, and reward systems. Finally, personal factors include problems that occur with an individual's self-esteem, their personal goals, values, and needs. All of these differences can pose a challenge for the team as a whole. It may be difficult to get everyone in the team working together and contributing equally (Capozzoli 1999). Communications are the key to success. A team must understand conflicts unpredictability and its impact on individuals and the team as a whole. These conflicts must be resolved and dealt with before the team falls apart.

Pros and cons of conflict

Conflict does not always become destructive. It can lead to a variety of ideas and give team members an interest in dealing with problems. It can give individuals the opportunity to develop their communication skills and express their personal thoughts to their team members. If you look at it from this perspective, it can be considered a positive thing. Conflict becomes negative when it is left to escalate to the point where people begin to feel defeated and a combative climate of distrust and suspicion develops. Nelson cautions that negative conflict can destroy a team quickly, and often arises from poor planning. He offers the list of high potential areas from which negative conflict issues commonly arise both in the workplace and in college:

Administration Procedures: If the team lacks good groundwork for what it's doing, its members will not be able to coordinate their work.
People Resources: If the team does not have enough resources to do the job, it is inevitable that some will carry too heavy a load. Resentment, often unexpressed, may build, so it is crucial that team leaders ensure adequate resources.
Cost overruns (work place, mainly): Often inevitable, cost overruns become a problem when proper measures are not taken. The whole team should know early on when cost becomes a problem so additional funding can be sought by the team. This way the problem can be resolved before it grows into a problem for management.
Schedules: The schedule is highly consequential to the team's project and should be highly visible. All members should be willing to work together to help each other meet their deadlines.
Responsibilities: Each team member must know what areas are assigned and who is accountable for them.
Wish Lists: Stick to the project at hand and avoid being sidetracked into trying to fit other things into it. Wait and do the other things you would like to do after successful completion of the original project (Bowditch, J. L., Buono, A. F. 1997).
Team members can and should attempt to avoid negative conflict from occurring. Being aware of the potential for negative conflict to occur and taking the necessary steps to ensure good planning will help (Esquivel, M.A. & Kleiner, B.H. 1997).

Identify strengths/weaknesses

What will be one person's weakness will possibly be another team member's strengths. It is important early on to have each team member identify for the group what their skills are. Team members should identify the areas in which they will be the most effective and what areas they will be of least assistance. Some team members will be better at proofreading while others will be better at organizing and structuring the projects. Those team members who are visual learners should be assigned the visual task, such as creating tables, charts, and other visuals. A very important part of a team is having everyone contribute equally. If one person is given a higher workload then their teammates, a sure conflict will develop. The team will need to lay out what is to be completed and from there distribute it equally to all members of the group.

Scheduling conflicts

People lead many different lives and have many different responsibilities, so it is not always easy for teams to coordinate a meeting. What is a good time for one member may be the busiest time of day for another. Thanks to modern technology, team meetings are more easily possible. Due to advances in technology and the Internet, teams are able to meet up at any time and any place in either a chat room or on a message board. Studies have found increased participation in computer-supported groups (Nelson, M 1995). During computer discussions, team members felt more comfortable presenting their ideas and views than during the traditional meeting sessions. The convenience is a big advantage as well. With just a click of the mouse, a team can be off and running, exchanging ideas and planning for upcoming projects. Scheduling conflict need to be ironed out early on in the beginning stages of forming a team. A team cannot function unless all members are available to meet.

Lack of equal participation

In order to prevent non-equal participation, teams need to come together early on and come to an agreement about participation. If it still becomes an issue, there are several ways to go about resolving the lack of participation between members. Team members need to communicate with those they feel are not doing their part. Members need to express what they perceive as a lack of participation. It is very possible that the one who is not participating is not aware that everyone else in the group feels that way. Finding out what each member of the group is feeling is the best way to start before approaching a member who is not participating. If it is determined that a member does not want to give equal participation, the group still needs to go on.

Understanding and overcoming differences

The most important thing to remember when addressing a team conflict is the way in which it is handled. You want to be able to manage the conflict in an effective manner - in a way that you solve the problems but keep the group together at the same time. It would be of no advantage to the group if you chose the wrong approach to resolve conflicts and, in turn, break up the group. Teamwork is not something that can be demanded. It is a fragile structure which needs to be handled delicately so as not to dissolve the group. The key to successful group projects is encouragement of an open, frank dialogue among all participants. Once people feel as though they are freely available to express their viewpoints without undue criticism or condemnation, a free-flowing environment will materialize. This kind of atmosphere is most conducive to productive work-product creation. Tribulations may crop up, but they can be dealt with in a professional, adult manner (Porter J.D., Shelia 2003).

After correctly identifying what specific problems have arisen in the group environment, the next step is eradicating, to the extent possible, subject problems. Several methods of resolution may be employed to varying degrees of success. The importance of appropriately classifying the difficulties the team is experiencing cannot be understated. Different problems may require fundamentally different responses.

Conflict Resolution

One method of conflict resolution is collaboration. This least-confrontational technique attempts to solve the problem by including everyone's thoughts. After synthesizing each team member's ideas, the best parts are selected to form the whole. Cooperative efforts made by the team can produce a solid result. This system is appropriate for groups containing especially delicate members and/or those with an inflated sense of self-worth. Perhaps the most effective method of conflict resolution is compromise. The first - and possibly most - simportant part of compromising is the realization that each person will have to relinquish something for the greater good. Once they can move beyond that, the rest is fairly simple. Even though limited satisfaction may result from seeing some of your work disregarded, a positive end-result should make up for a bruised ego (Nelson, M 1995).

While others may entertain certain measures of conflict resolution such as avoidance or accommodation, those can prove ineffective and may actually cause larger problems down the line. By ignoring the predicament, it does a disservice to the views that have been stifled and the potentially positive contribution that may otherwise have been included in the project. Another method of solving disagreements is reshuffling the team members. By altering the construction, a more agreeable stance might be agreed upon. With different people assigned to new tasks, fresh ideas may emerge and the conflict may resolve of its own volition. Even if that does not exclusively answer the quandary, reorganization may tamper down some of the previous problems enough that productive work can now be done. (Porter J.D., Shelia 2003).

Disagreement amongst team members does not necessarily have to represent a problem. In fact, a divergence of viewpoints can be celebrated as being a valuable asset to the ultimate goal of the team. Groups, while sometimes born of necessity, may also be created specifically for the purpose of encouraging a more creative, diverse project through the input of several unique viewpoints.

Conflict resolution inside a learning team is paramount to its success. Serious disagreement among team members can severely impact the group's work or even grind operations to a halt. Teams may try to prevent disruptions from even arising while working together, but inevitably, when people from different backgrounds with diverse viewpoints merge, there will be some measure of disagreement. In order for the team to be effective, a reasonable solution to conflicts that may arise must be employed. Varying circumstances necessitate any one of a multitude of approaches. When the best process is applied, the problem can be discarded and the important work of the team can progress. Through the understanding and acceptance of the value of each team member, internal conflicts may be resolved in an expedient, efficient manner that will strengthen, rather than weaken, the group's mission.

References

Porter J.D., Shelia (2003). Managing Conflict in Learning Teams. Retrieved May 25, 2004, from University of Phoenix, Learning Team Toolkit website: http://aapd.phoenix.edu

Capozzoli, T.K. (1995, Dec). Resolving conflict within teams. Journal for Quality & Participation, 18(7), 28-30.

Capozzoli, T.K. (1999, Nov.). Conflict resolution - a key ingredient in successful teams. SuperVision, 60(11), 14-16.

(Esquivel, M.A. & Kleiner, B.H. 1997) (1997). The importance of conflict in work team effectiveness. Team Performance Management, 3(2), 89.

Nelson, M. (1995). Interpersonal team leadership skills. Hospital Material Management Quarterly, 16 (4), 53 - 63.

Rayeski, E., & Bryant, J. D. (1994). Team resolution process: A guideline for teams to manage conflict, performance, and discipline. In M. Beyerlein & M. Bullock (Eds.), The International Conference on Work Teams Proceedings: Anniversary Collection. The Best of 1990 - 1994 (pp. 215 - 221). Denton: University of North Texas, Center for the Study of Work Teams.

Bowditch, J. L., Buono, A. F. (1997). A primer on organizational behavior (4th ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

About The Author
Kenneth R Tapscott is a Criminal Justice major currently working in the law enforcement field. More information can be obtained at www.tapscott.info.